India of the 18th century failed to make progress economically, socially or culturally at an adequate pace. The India of those days, was the land of contrasts. On the one hand, there were rich and powerful nobles steeped in luxury and comfort and on the other hand, backward, oppressed and impoverished peasants lived at the base subsistence level and had to bear all sorts of injustices and inequalities

EDUCATION

Education was not completely neglected in 18th century in India. But it was defective to a large extent. Education was traditional and out of touch with the rapid development in the West. The knowledge which it imparted was confined to literature, law, religion, philosophy, and logic, and excluded the study of physical and natural sciences, technologies and geography. Nor did it concern itself with a factual and rational study of society. In every field original thought was discouraged and reliance was placed on ancient learning.

AGRICULTURE

Agriculture was technically backward and stagnant. The techniques of production had remained stationary for centuries. The peasant tried to make up for technical backwardness by toiling very hard. The state, the zamindars, the jagirdars and the revenue farmers tried to extract the maximum amount of his produce from him. This was as much true of the Mughal state as of the Maratha or Sikh chiefs or that of the other successors of the Mughal state.

TRADE

Indian villages were largely self- sufficient and imported little from outside. There was extensive trade within the country and between India and other countries of Asia and Europe, but was carried on under the Mughals.

• IMPORTED ARTICLES

India imported pearls, raw silk, wool, dates, dried fruits and rose water from the Persian Gulf; coffee, gold, drugs and honey from Arabia; tea, sugar, porcelain and silk from China; gold, musk and woollen cloth from Tibet; tin from Singapore; spices, perfumes, arrack and sugar from Indonesian islands; ivory and drugs from Africa; woollen clothes and metals such as iron, copper, lead and paper from Europe.

• EXPORTED ARTICLES

The most important articles for export were the cotton textiles, which were famous all over the world for their excellence and were in demand everywhere. It also exported raw materials like silk and silk fabrics, hardware, indigo, saltpetre, opium, rice, wheat, sugar, pepper other spices precious stones and drugs.

Since, India was wholly self-sufficient in handicrafts and agricultural products, it did not import foreign goods on a large-scale. On the other hand, its industrial and agricultural products had a steady market abroad.

Consequently, it exported more than it imported and its trade was balanced by its import of silver and gold. In fact, India was known as a sink of precious metals.

• FALL IN TRADE

The constant warfare and disruption of law and order in many areas during the 18th century harmed the country’s internal trade. Many trading centres were looted by the contestants for power and by the foreign invaders. Many of the trade routes were infested with organised bands of robbers and traders and their caravans were regularly looted.

Even the road between Delhi and Agra was made unsafe. Moreover, with the rise of autonomous provincial regimes and innumerable local chiefs, the number of custom houses or chowkies grew by leaps and bounds.

Every petty or large ruler tried to increase his income by imposing heavy custom duties on goods entering or passing through his territories.

LIFE IN THE EARLY 18TH CENTURY

On the whole, the life of masses at the beginning of the 18th century was miserable, due to the following reasons

• Increase revenue demands of the states.
• Oppression by the officials.
• Rapacity of the nobles, revenue farmers and zamindars.
• The marches and counter-marches of the rival armies.
• The depredations of the numerous adventures roaming the land.